What where the chances that a slave, who had been beaten to lameness by his former master, would rise and become one of the most influential Stoic philosophers of all time?
I won’t cover here the history of Epictetus (c. 50 – c. 135 AD) as you can read all about it online, but suffice it to say that he was born a slave at Hierapolis, Phrygia (in present day Turkey), became a philosopher and teacher, and lived in Rome until his banishment to Nicopolis, Greece, where he spent the rest of his life.
Epictetus (c. 50 – c. 135 AD). Public domain image.
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Epictetus taught that philosophy is a way of life and not just a theoretical discipline. This shines through in his handbook, a.k.a. The Enchiridion, which is a short but useful manual for living a better life.
All of Epictetus’s teachings were written down and published by his pupil Arrian, mainly in The Discourses, but he also compiled a popular digest, i.e. the handbook.
The handbook was originally written in Koine Greek and the best known English translation by Thomas Wentworth Higginson is rather old and therefore I really recommend Sam Torode’s rendering of the handbook to contemporary English. It just makes so much more sense and you’ll immediately grasp what Epictetus was talking about.
Epictetus’s teachings can be condensed as follows: “All external events are beyond our control and we should accept whatever happens calmly and dispassionately. However, individuals are responsible for their own actions, which they can examine and control through rigorous self-discipline.”
Selected highlights
Below you’ll find some of the highlights from the handbook, together with some commentary of my own.
There are things that are within our power, and things that fall outside our power. Within our power are our own opinions, aims, desires, dislikes — in sum, our own thoughts and actions. Outside our power are our physical characteristics, the class into which we were born, our reputation in the eyes of others, and honors and offices that may be bestowed on us. […]
If you pin your hopes on things outside your control, taking upon yourself things which rightfully belong to others, you are liable to stumble, fall, suffer, and blame both gods and men. But if you focus your attention only on what is truly your own concern, and leave to others what concerns them, then you will be in charge of your interior life. No one will be able to harm or hinder you. You will blame no one, and have no enemies.
If you wish to have peace and contentment, release your attachment to all things outside your control. This is the path of freedom and happiness.
The passage above is how the handbook opens and it crystallises the Dichotomy of Control, one of the key concepts of Stoic thinking, which has later been expanded to a Trichotomy of Control by William B. Irvine, who added some important nuance to the idea that we should only concern ourselves with things that are within our control.
What of things, objects, and beings that delight your mind, are of good practical use, or which you dearly love? Remind yourself of their true nature, beginning with the smallest trifle and working upward.
If you have a favorite cup, remember that it is only a cup that you prefer — if it is broken, you can bear it.
When you embrace your wife or child, remember that they are mortal beings. By accepting their nature rather than denying it, if either should die you will find the strength to bear it.
Here Epictetus describes another important psychological technique practiced by the Stoics called premeditatio malorum or negative visualization. I’ve written about it in a previous blog post.
Essentially, it’s all about spending time imagining we’ve lost something we value. For example, we could visualize that our wife/husband has left us or that we’ve lost our job. Ultimately, as in the passage above, we can even contemplate on death, so as to avoid taking life for granted.
Do not take satisfaction in possessions and achievements that are not your own. If a horse were to say, “I am handsome,” his pride may be excusable. But if you boast, “I have a handsome horse,” you are claiming merit that is not yours.
What, then, is your own? The way you live your life.
When you are living in harmony with nature, you can take just satisfaction.
Epictetus reminds us that what you can control is how you live your life, and the goal in life – as seen by the Stoics – is that “we should live in agreement with nature”. Humans, unlike all other animals, are constituted by nature to develop reason as adults, which transforms our understanding of ourselves and life itself.
Lameness may strike your leg, but not your resolve. Sickness may weaken your body, but not your determination — unless you let it. The only thing that can impede your will is your will itself.
Each time an obstacle arises, remind yourself of this truth. While it may hinder some part of you, it cannot constrain your true self.
There are echoes of fatalism in this passage, and it is true that the Stoics prescribed a certain level of fatalism when it comes to the past and present. In other words, we shouldn’t dwell or be paralyzed by things that have already taken place, or that are occurring right now.
We should, however, not be fatalistic about the future. As William B. Irvine wrote: “Despite their belief that whatever happened had to happen, the ancients were not fatalistic about the future. The Stoics, for example, did not sit around apathetically, resigned to whatever the future held in store; to the contrary, they spent their days working to affect the outcome of future events.”
If you make peace with all things that are beyond your power, refusing to fight them, you will be invincible.
When you see a person who is respected, powerful, or celebrated on some account, do not be taken in by appearances and assume that they are happy.
If you desire the virtues which are within your power, there is no room for envy or aping others. Instead of wishing to be a general, a congressman, or a celebrity, desire to be free. And the way to be free is to let go of anything that is not within your control.
The Stoics held that the secret to happiness is living a virtuous life, since virtue is the only real good and thus both necessary and – contrary to Aristotle – sufficient for happiness.
Or put in another way: “The virtuous life is free of all passions, which are intrinsically disturbing and harmful to the soul, but includes appropriate emotive responses conditioned by rational understanding and the fulfilment of all one’s personal, social, professional, and civic responsibilities.”
Think of life as a play, and yourself as an actor. Your role and time on stage is up to the Author’s choosing. Whether you are cast as a pauper, a cripple, a congressman, or a king, play your part to the best of your ability.
You cannot choose the era, nationality, family, and body into which you are born. But to act well in your given role — this is your sphere of power.
This is not just another reminder of the dichotomy of control, but also includes some fundamental Stoic thinking around how to live your life. Stoicism is after all a practical philosophy, with the aim of living a meaningful life and becoming one's best self.
Conclusion
Epictetus’s handbook was written almost two millennia ago, but it’s still a useful and relevant self-help book. Some may object to my describing it as a self-help book, but I suspect that was exactly what it was intended to be when originally published.
The handbook delivers practical advice for living a good life and it describes in a beautiful and actionable way essential parts of Stoicism. It’s also a quick read and the audiobook version is only 50 minutes in length or so.
To be sure, there are parts of ancient Roman Stoicism that aren’t applicable in the modern world, but that goes without saying considering the place and time of Epictetus and his teachings.
Finally, Epictetus himself is an inspiring character showing us that anything is possible with the right attitude, as long as you focus on what really matters and have a healthy dose of grit. Marcus Aurelius, another great Stoic philosopher, was clearly also a fan, as he repeatedly quotes from Epictetus in his own work Meditations.